Ghent Developmental Balance Test Manual Example

Posted : admin | On 10-05-2021

Ghent Developmental Balance Test Manual For Standardized. 19 example stay Even Secretary trading questions rules treatment property concerns cancer income decided actually test. Lettering: A Reference Manual of Techniques Andrew Haslam with photographs by Daniel Alexander London: Laurance King. Sensory and Motor development. Sensory development. However, skin sensitivity also appears to increase with age. For example, Ghent (1961) studied tactual thresholds in the hands of children 5 to 11 years old and found that sensitivity increased over this age range. Ghent, Lila 1961 Developmental Changes in Tactual Thresholds on. Ghent Developmental Balance Test: A New Tool to Evaluate Balance Performance in Toddlers and Preschool Children. Wim Peersman + 4. Wim Peersman. Alexandra Kegel. Ingeborg Dhooge. Download with Google Download with Facebook or download with email. Development and pilot testing of the FIST was funded in part by a generous. The Function in Sitting Test (FIST) was created to allow healthcare providers to. Additionally, as a test of balance in a seated position, it is the healthcare provider’s responsibility to guard and supervise the.

Balance is a fundamental component of movement. Early identification of balance problems is important to plan early intervention. The Ghent Developmental Balance Test (GDBT) is a new assessment tool designed to monitor balance from the initiation of independent walking to 5 years of age.

Objective

The purpose of this study was to establish the psychometric characteristics of the GDBT.

To evaluate test-retest reliability, 144 children were tested twice on the GDBT by the same examiner, and to evaluate interrater reliability, videotaped GDBT sessions of 22 children were rated by 3 different raters. To evaluate the known-group validity of GDBT scores, z scores on the GDBT were compared between a clinical group (n=20) and a matched control group (n=20). Concurrent validity of GDBT scores with the subscale standardized scores of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children–Second Edition (M-ABC-2), the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales–Second Edition (PDMS-2), and the balance subscale of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test–Second Edition (BOT-2) was evaluated in a combined group of the 20 children from the clinical group and 74 children who were developing typically.

Results

Test-retest and interrater reliability were excellent for the GDBT total scores, with intraclass correlation coefficients of .99 and .98, standard error of measurement values of 0.21 and 0.78, and small minimal detectable differences of 0.58 and 2.08, respectively. The GDBT was able to distinguish between the clinical group and the control group (t₃₈=5.456, P<.001). Pearson correlations between the z scores on GDBT and the standardized scores of specific balance subscales of the M-ABC-2, PDMS-2, and BOT-2 were moderate to high, whereas correlations with subscales measuring constructs other than balance were low.

The GDBT is a reliable and valid clinical assessment tool for the evaluation of balance in toddlers and preschool-aged children.

Balance or postural stability is a fundamental component of movement, involving the ability to recover from instability and the ability to anticipate as well as to move in ways to avoid instability. It is the complex ability to maintain the body's center of gravity over the base of support while a person is stationary, in motion, or preparing to move or to stop moving. The body's motor, sensory, and cognitive systems work together to achieve postural stability.1

Various developmental motor disorders cause poor balance, which causes difficulties with the development of numerous functional activities in daily life.2–7 To plan early interventions for young children with motor disabilities, a specific valid and reliable tool to evaluate functional balance performance is an essential part of the assessment, not only for screening and diagnosing but also to assess progress and evaluate the efficacy of interventions.8

Several standardized, comprehensive tests are available for motor skill assessment in children. Most of these tests encompass multiple balance tasks. Some of these tests—such as the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test–Second Edition (BOT-2),9 for 4- to 21-year-olds; the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales–Second Edition (PDMS-2),10 for 0- to 5-year-olds; and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children–Second Edition (M-ABC-2),11 for 3- to 16-year-olds—even offer a specific balance subscale score. Additionally, in children older than 4 to 5 years, besides clinical balance tests such as the One-Leg Stance Test.12,13 the Pediatric Reach Test,14,15 the Berg Balance Scale,14 and tiltboard tip tests,13 posturography is a possible assessment tool to evaluate the strategies used to control balance.12 However, within the age range of 18 months to 5 years, the number of standardized motor tests is limited. Nevertheless, the PDMS-210 encompasses this age group and offers a “stationary” subtest based on 30 items from birth to 5 years of age. The aim of this subtest is to measure the child's ability to sustain control of his or her body within its center of gravity and maintain equilibrium.10 Still, there remain some developmental gaps in this series of items, and this subscale implements some items such as push-ups and curl-ups that are not specific to balance.

From a review of the available tests for children within the age range of 18 months to 5 years, the lack of a tool to systematically monitor balance became clear and led us to develop a new assessment tool to monitor balance from the initiation of independent walking to 5 years of age. The Ghent Developmental Balance Test (GDBT)16 aims at offering a more complete series of tasks reflecting the development of the child's balance abilities. This test is suitable for children who are developing typically from the moment of independent walking until the age of 5 years or for children with a similar level of balance control. The test consists of static balance items that evaluate the ability to maintain a specific static posture, such as one-leg stance, and dynamic balance items that evaluate the ability to maintain balance in action, such as walking on a line and one-leg hopping. Because static and dynamic balance are not a valid dichotomy,12 we decided not to divide them into 2 subscale scores.

The purpose of this study was to investigate test-retest and interrater reliability and 3 aspects of validity of the GDBT. The first aspect of validity that was investigated was known-group validity, which was evaluated by determining the ability of GDBT to distinguish between a group of children with typical development and a group of children with motor retardation needing physical therapy intervention. The second aspect of validity that was investigated was the convergent and discriminant validity of the GDBT with other motor assessment tools. The third aspect of validity that was investigated was the construct validity of the developmental sequence of the GDBT.

Method

Participants

Three hundred sixty children who were developing typically and were between 18 months and 5 years of age were recruited from different public day care centers and kindergartens located in different areas of Flanders, the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium, to include in the norm standardization sample. From that sample, 144 children were assigned to the test-retest reliability part of the study, 22 children were assigned to the interrater reliability part of the study, and 74 children were assigned to the validity part of the study (eTab. 1). The subsamples were selected by institution from the larger sample. Inclusion criteria were no known neuromotor, sensory, or intellectual disability and no acute or chronic illness. In addition, 20 children between 4 and 5 years of age and diagnosed with motor retardation needing physical therapy intervention were recruited by different multidisciplinary pediatric rehabilitation centers to include as a clinical group in the validity part of the study. Inclusion criteria for the clinical group were no acute or chronic illness and no severe neuromotor disorders such as cerebral palsy according to the medical records. Written informed consent was obtained from the children's parents.

Measurements

GDBT

The GDBT aims specifically to evaluate balance in children from the moment of independent walking until the age of 5 years. The test consists of 35 balance items in a developmental order ( Appendix). Each item can be scored on a 3-point scale: a score of 2 is assigned when the child performs the item according to the specified item criteria, a score of 1 indicates that the behavior is emerging but that the criteria for successful performance are not fully met, and a score of 0 indicates that the child cannot or will not attempt the item or that the attempt does not show that the skill is emerging. The actual criteria for the score are indicated per item in the GDBT manual.16

The test starts from the level at which the child achieves 3 consecutive scores of 2 in the developmental order of the test. The examiner chooses the first item on which he or she thinks the child may perform the task easily. If the child does not achieve 3 consecutive scores of 2, the level is lowered and preceding items in the developmental order of the test are tried until 3 consecutive scores of 2 are achieved. For all items before the 3 consecutive scores of 2, the child will automatically obtain a score of 2. Testing continues until the child fails 3 consecutive items in the developmental order of the test. For all of the following items, the child is given a score of 0. The number of times required to perform a task is not restricted. The order in which the items are taken during the assessment can be adapted in order to encourage the child, but the scoring of the child is always in accordance with the developmental order of the test. Every exercise should be explained and demonstrated by the test leader. The test takes no longer than 20 minutes to complete. All children are barefoot during testing. The total test score is the sum of the scores on all items, with the value ranging between 0 and 70. The total test score was converted to an age-corrected z score based on the current standardization group for some statistical analyses. For clinical interpretation, the total score on the GDBT can be converted to a percentile score using the norm table in the GDBT manual.16

M-ABC-2

The M-ABC-211 is a revision of the Motor Assessment Battery for Children.17 The revised test makes it possible to identify and describe impairments in motor performance of children in the age range of 3 to 16 years. The test consists of 8 items in each of 3 age bands. All children in the validity part of the study who were older than 3 years were tested on the first age band for 3- to 6-year-olds, which contains the following items: 3 manual dexterity items (posting coins in a bank box, threading beads, and drawing a line through a trail), 2 ball skills items (catching a bean bag and throwing a bean bag onto a mat), and 3 balance items (one-leg stance, walking with heels raised, and jumping on mats). A standardized protocol was used in accordance with the published guidelines.11 For each child, the raw item scores were transformed to item standardized scores (X̅=10, SD=3), component standardized scores, a total standardized score, and a percentile score based on a standardization group of 3,198 Dutch and Flemish children.18 The M-ABC-2 has proven to be reliable,11,18 even in 3-year-old children,19 and valid.11,20

PDMS-2

The PDMS-2 evaluates the early motor milestones and fundamental motor skills of children from birth to 5 years of age. The items are assigned to 6 skill categories. The gross motor scale contains 4 categories: reflexes (<1 year), stationary, locomotion, and object manipulation (>1 year). The fine motor scale contains 2 categories: grasping and visual-motor integration. For each item in the test, performance criteria are specified and scored on a 3-point scale, from 0 to 2. Administration starts in each category at a basal age level, defined as the first level at which scores of 2 are achieved for 3 consecutive items. Then the test continues until 3 consecutive scores of 0 are achieved. The raw score is the sum of the item scores, and raw scores were transformed to standardized scores (X̅=10, SD=3), percentiles, and motor quotients for the gross motor scale, the fine motor scale, and the total scale. Norms based on a US standardization sample are available.10 In the validity part of the study, all children younger than 3 years completed the complete PDMS-2, whereas children older than 3 years completed only the stationary and locomotion categories. The PDMS-2 evidences a high degree of reliability and validity.10,21–23

BOT-2

The BOT-2 is a standardized, norm-referenced measure of fine and gross motor skills for individuals from 4 through 21 years of age. The test consists of 4 motor areas: fine manual control, manual coordination, body coordination, and strength and agility. The balance subscale is part of the body coordination motor area. The balance subscale consists of 9 items, of which 4 are performed alternately with eyes open and eyes closed. The total point score on the subscale was converted to a scale score (X̅=15, SD=5). All children in the validity part of the study who were older than 4 years completed the balance subscale of the BOT-2. The subscale balance showed good test-retest reliability, with a Pearson correlation coefficient of .65 for the age group of 4- to 7-year-olds, and excellent interrater reliability, with a Pearson correlation coefficient of .99.9,24

Procedure

All examiners who supervised the assessments had learned to administer and score the GDBT in a practical information session conducted by one of the developers of the test.

Test-retest reliability of GDBT scores

One hundred forty-four children completed 2 GDBT test sessions on 2 different days in the same week under supervision of the same examiner. All test sessions took place in the same quiet room to minimize noise or other disturbances.

Interrater reliability of GDBT scores

The GDBT test sessions of 22 children were supervised by the same examiner and were videotaped. Afterward, the videotaped performances were rated by 3 experienced pediatric physical therapists according to the test instructions of the manual. The 3 raters read the manual carefully to learn scoring the test before they began scoring.

Validity of GDBT scores

Ninety-four children (74 with typical development and 20 diagnosed with motor retardation) were tested on the GDBT, the PDMS-2 (children >3 years were tested on only the stationary and locomotion categories), the M-ABC-2 (children >3 years), and the balance subscale of the BOT-2 (children >4 years) on the same day. Each child was randomly assigned to initial testing with the GDBT, PDMS-2, M-ABC-2, or BOT-2. At least one break was offered to the children between the tests. The complete test session took place in the same quiet room to minimize noise or other disturbances. All children were tested by 2 trained examiners. Alternating roles, one examiner instructed and evaluated the child while the other examiner wrote down the results. All examiners completed a practical information session about all tests conducted by an experienced therapist.

Data Analysis

For test-retest and interrater reliability of the total score on the GDBT, a general linear model for repeated measures was applied to determine any systematic bias of testing over the consecutive occasions. Reliability was quantified using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) and standard errors of measurement (SEMs). An ICC with a 2-way, mixed-effects, single-measure model (absolute agreement) was chosen to assess relative reliability, which was determined as between-subject variance versus total variance.25,26 The ICC data were interpreted using the following criteria: .00–.40=poor, .40–.75=moderate, and .75–1.00=excellent.27 For each ICC obtained, the 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated to provide a range of values that is likely to cover the true population value.

The SEM was selected to test absolute reliability and provides an estimate of the unsystematic variance in a person's score.25,26 The SEM is computed by multiplying the standard deviation of the total test score between the participants by the square root of 1 minus its ICC (⁠ $SEM = SD \sqrt{[1 - ICC]}$ ⁠).28 A high SEM indicates a high level of error and implies nonreproducibility of tested values.29 In clinical practice, it is important to know whether test-retest differences on an individual basis are at or over the 1 minimal detectable difference (MDD) level. The MDD is considered the minimal amount of change that is not likely to be due to chance variation in measurement. The MDD of the total score was computed as $SEM$ to obtain a 95% CI.26,30,31

For test-retest and interrater reliability of the item scores of the GDBT, weighted kappa values were calculated because the items were scored on an ordinal 3-point scale. The kappa value is a statistical method to gauge agreement among different measurements, which takes into account chance agreement.32 The value can be interpreted as follows: ≤0.20=poor, 0.21–0.40=fair, 0.41–0.60=moderate, 0.61–0.80=good, and 0.81–1.00=very good.33

The Cronbach alpha coefficient was calculated on the data of the norm standardization sample to examine how well all items measured the same construct (internal consistency). Scales that are intended for individual diagnostic purposes should have a coefficient around .95.34

To investigate known-group validity, balance performance on the GDBT was compared between the clinical group and the age- and sex-matched control group of children with typical development (n=20). Significance testing was performed using independent t tests. We used the traditional 2-sample t test if the 2 variances were equal, but if the variances were not equal, the 2-sample t test applicable for situations with unequal variances according to Welch was used.35 In interpreting the significance testing, alpha was set at .05. In addition, effect size, using the Cohen d statistic, was calculated by the means (M) and standard deviations (SD) of the 2 groups (Cohen d = (M₁ − M₂)/SD_pooled, whereby $SD pooled = \sqrt{[({SD}_{1}^{2} + {SD}_{2}^{2}) / 2]}$ ⁠) for between-group comparisons. Effect sizes of 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 are considered small, moderate, and large, respectively.36

Pearson correlation coefficients were used to investigate the convergent and discriminant validity between the z scores of the GDBT and the standardized scores of the M-ABC-2, PDMS-2, and BOT-2. The 95% CIs for all correlation coefficients were calculated. The strength of the coefficient was determined as follows: .00–.25=little, if any, correlation; .26–.49=low correlation; .50–.69=moderate correlation; .70–.89=high correlation, and .90–1.00=very high correlation.37

Based on the norm standardization sample, the association between the age of the children and the total score on GDBT was evaluated by a Pearson correlation coefficient. Differences in mean total scores across age and sex were tested by a 2-way analysis of variance.

Results

eTable 1 presents the age and sex distribution of the participants of the different parts of the study.

Test-Retest Reliability

The within-subjects effects for repeated measures showed a significant effect of repeated testing for the total score in the total group (F_1,143=6.459, P=.012), as well as in the age group of 2-year-old children (F_1,34=5.608, P=.024). Table 1 shows the test-retest reliability of the total score, which was excellent in the total group, as well as for all age groups, with ICCs between .84 and .99. All SEMs were small and ranged from 0.21 to 0.64, resulting in small MDDs that ranged from 0.58 to 1.77. Table 2 presents the test-retest reliability of the item scores, which showed very good agreement for items 10 through 35, with kappa values all higher than 0.73. No weighted kappa values could be calculated for items 1 to 9 because of a skewed distribution.

Test-Retest Reliability of the Ghent Developmental Balance Test Total Score^a

Age Group

Test 1	Test 2	P	ICC (95% CI)	SEM	MDD
X̅ (SD)	X̅ (SD)	P	ICC (95% CI)	SEM	MDD
Total group (n=144)	48.0 (17.6)	48.4 (17.4)	.012	.99 (.99–.99)	0.21	0.58
18–23 mo (n=16)	21.9 (5.7)	22.5 (6.3)	.360	.91 (.77–.97)	0.64	1.77
24–35 mo (n=35)	32.3 (8.7)	32.9 (8.6)	.024	.98 (.96–.99)	0.30	0.83
36–47 mo (n=28)	45.0 (6.5)	45.6 (6.1)	.244	.93 (.85–.97)	0.46	1.28
48–59 mo (n=31)	61.6 (7.7)	62.0 (8.0)	.330	.95 (.90–.97)	0.45	1.25
60–71 mo (n=34)	66.8 (3.4)	66.9 (3.4)	.666	.84 (.70–.91)	0.33	0.91

Age Group

Test 1	Test 2	P	ICC (95% CI)	SEM	MDD
X̅ (SD)	X̅ (SD)	P	ICC (95% CI)	SEM	MDD
Total group (n=144)	48.0 (17.6)	48.4 (17.4)	.012	.99 (.99–.99)	0.21	0.58
18–23 mo (n=16)	21.9 (5.7)	22.5 (6.3)	.360	.91 (.77–.97)	0.64	1.77
24–35 mo (n=35)	32.3 (8.7)	32.9 (8.6)	.024	.98 (.96–.99)	0.30	0.83
36–47 mo (n=28)	45.0 (6.5)	45.6 (6.1)	.244	.93 (.85–.97)	0.46	1.28
48–59 mo (n=31)	61.6 (7.7)	62.0 (8.0)	.330	.95 (.90–.97)	0.45	1.25
60–71 mo (n=34)	66.8 (3.4)	66.9 (3.4)	.666	.84 (.70–.91)	0.33	0.91

ICC=intraclass correlation coefficient, CI=confidence interval, SEM=standard error of the measurement, MDD=minimal detectable difference.

Test-Retest Reliability of the Ghent Developmental Balance Test Total Score^a

Age Group

Test 1	Test 2	P	ICC (95% CI)	SEM	MDD
X̅ (SD)	X̅ (SD)	P	ICC (95% CI)	SEM	MDD
Total group (n=144)	48.0 (17.6)	48.4 (17.4)	.012	.99 (.99–.99)	0.21	0.58
18–23 mo (n=16)	21.9 (5.7)	22.5 (6.3)	.360	.91 (.77–.97)	0.64	1.77
24–35 mo (n=35)	32.3 (8.7)	32.9 (8.6)	.024	.98 (.96–.99)	0.30	0.83
36–47 mo (n=28)	45.0 (6.5)	45.6 (6.1)	.244	.93 (.85–.97)	0.46	1.28
48–59 mo (n=31)	61.6 (7.7)	62.0 (8.0)	.330	.95 (.90–.97)	0.45	1.25
60–71 mo (n=34)	66.8 (3.4)	66.9 (3.4)	.666	.84 (.70–.91)	0.33	0.91

Age Group

Test 1	Test 2	P	ICC (95% CI)	SEM	MDD
X̅ (SD)	X̅ (SD)	P	ICC (95% CI)	SEM	MDD
Total group (n=144)	48.0 (17.6)	48.4 (17.4)	.012	.99 (.99–.99)	0.21	0.58
18–23 mo (n=16)	21.9 (5.7)	22.5 (6.3)	.360	.91 (.77–.97)	0.64	1.77
24–35 mo (n=35)	32.3 (8.7)	32.9 (8.6)	.024	.98 (.96–.99)	0.30	0.83
36–47 mo (n=28)	45.0 (6.5)	45.6 (6.1)	.244	.93 (.85–.97)	0.46	1.28
48–59 mo (n=31)	61.6 (7.7)	62.0 (8.0)	.330	.95 (.90–.97)	0.45	1.25
60–71 mo (n=34)	66.8 (3.4)	66.9 (3.4)	.666	.84 (.70–.91)	0.33	0.91

ICC=intraclass correlation coefficient, CI=confidence interval, SEM=standard error of the measurement, MDD=minimal detectable difference.

Test-Retest and Interrater Reliability of the Item Scores of the Ghent Developmental Balance Test With Weighted Kappa Values (95% Confidence Interval)

Item^a

Test-Retest Reliability (n=144)	Interrater Reliability (n=22)
Test-Retest Reliability (n=144)	Raters 1 and 2	Raters 2 and 3	Raters 1 and 3
10	0.90 (0.78–1.00)
11	0.77 (0.52–1.00)
12	0.88 (0.78–0.98)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	0.65 (0.01–1.00)	0.65 (0.01–1.00)
13	0.95 (0.90–1.00)
14	0.86 (0.77–0.96)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
15	0.94 (0.88–1.00)	0.88 (0.65–1.00)	0.86 (0.60–1.00)	0.74 (0.42–1.00)
16	0.94 (0.84–0.99)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
17	0.92 (0.87–0.98)	0.83 (0.53–1.00)	0.81 (0.55–1.00)	0.83 (0.63–1.00)
18	0.91 (0.84–0.98)	0.64 (0.01–1.00)	0.65 (0.01–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
19	0.86 (0.79–0.93)	0.81 (0.56–1.00)	0.74 (0.52–0.96)	0.71 (0.43–0.98)
20	0.87 (0.80–0.95)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	0.77 (0.40–1.00)	0.77 (0.40–1.00)
21	0.91 (0.86–0.96)	0.89 (0.75–1.00)	0.84 (0.67–1.00)	0.84 (0.68–1.00)
22	0.85 (0.78–0.92)	0.78 (0.60–0.96)	0.90 (0.76–1.00)	0.68 (0.47–0.90)
23	0.91 (0.86–0.96)	0.78 (0.54–1.00)	0.78 (0.59–0.97)	0.66 (0.40–0.93)
24	0.92 (0.86–0.98)	0.89 (0.67–1.00)	0.94 (0.85–1.00)	0.83 (0.61–1.00)
25	0.91 (0.86–0.96)	0.66 (0.34–0.98)	0.67 (0.36–0.99)	0.67 (0.36–0.98)
26	0.95 (0.91–0.99)	0.86 (0.66–1.00)	0.95 (0.86–1.00)	0.77 (0.52–1.00)
27	0.89 (0.83–0.96)	0.91 (0.79–1.00)	0.91 (0.70–1.00)	0.91 (0.78–1.00)
28	0.84 (0.77–0.91)	0.83 (0.68–0.98)	0.95 (0.86–1.00)	0.77 (0.55–0.98)
29	0.85 (0.78–0.92)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
30	0.91 (0.85–0.96)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	0.77 (0.52–1.00)	0.77 (0.52–1.00)
31	0.90 (0.85–0.96)	0.95 (0.86–1.00)	0.76 (0.52–0.99)	0.81 (0.59–1.00)
32	0.88 (0.81–0.95)	0.76 (0.50–1.00)	0.68 (0.47–0.90)	0.66 (0.37–0.94)
33	0.81 (0.71–0.90)	0.75 (0.53–0.97)	0.86 (0.69–1.00)	0.75 (0.44–1.00)
34	0.80 (0.71–0.89)	0.69 (0.42–0.96)	0.55 (0.23–0.87)	0.38 (0.09–0.68)
35	0.73 (0.62–0.84)	0.81 (0.64–0.98)	0.46 (0.15–0.77)	0.40 (0.09–0.70)

Item^a

Test-Retest Reliability (n=144)	Interrater Reliability (n=22)
Test-Retest Reliability (n=144)	Raters 1 and 2	Raters 2 and 3	Raters 1 and 3
10	0.90 (0.78–1.00)
11	0.77 (0.52–1.00)
12	0.88 (0.78–0.98)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	0.65 (0.01–1.00)	0.65 (0.01–1.00)
13	0.95 (0.90–1.00)
14	0.86 (0.77–0.96)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
15	0.94 (0.88–1.00)	0.88 (0.65–1.00)	0.86 (0.60–1.00)	0.74 (0.42–1.00)
16	0.94 (0.84–0.99)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
17	0.92 (0.87–0.98)	0.83 (0.53–1.00)	0.81 (0.55–1.00)	0.83 (0.63–1.00)
18	0.91 (0.84–0.98)	0.64 (0.01–1.00)	0.65 (0.01–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
19	0.86 (0.79–0.93)	0.81 (0.56–1.00)	0.74 (0.52–0.96)	0.71 (0.43–0.98)
20	0.87 (0.80–0.95)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	0.77 (0.40–1.00)	0.77 (0.40–1.00)
21	0.91 (0.86–0.96)	0.89 (0.75–1.00)	0.84 (0.67–1.00)	0.84 (0.68–1.00)
22	0.85 (0.78–0.92)	0.78 (0.60–0.96)	0.90 (0.76–1.00)	0.68 (0.47–0.90)
23	0.91 (0.86–0.96)	0.78 (0.54–1.00)	0.78 (0.59–0.97)	0.66 (0.40–0.93)
24	0.92 (0.86–0.98)	0.89 (0.67–1.00)	0.94 (0.85–1.00)	0.83 (0.61–1.00)
25	0.91 (0.86–0.96)	0.66 (0.34–0.98)	0.67 (0.36–0.99)	0.67 (0.36–0.98)
26	0.95 (0.91–0.99)	0.86 (0.66–1.00)	0.95 (0.86–1.00)	0.77 (0.52–1.00)
27	0.89 (0.83–0.96)	0.91 (0.79–1.00)	0.91 (0.70–1.00)	0.91 (0.78–1.00)
28	0.84 (0.77–0.91)	0.83 (0.68–0.98)	0.95 (0.86–1.00)	0.77 (0.55–0.98)
29	0.85 (0.78–0.92)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
30	0.91 (0.85–0.96)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	0.77 (0.52–1.00)	0.77 (0.52–1.00)
31	0.90 (0.85–0.96)	0.95 (0.86–1.00)	0.76 (0.52–0.99)	0.81 (0.59–1.00)
32	0.88 (0.81–0.95)	0.76 (0.50–1.00)	0.68 (0.47–0.90)	0.66 (0.37–0.94)
33	0.81 (0.71–0.90)	0.75 (0.53–0.97)	0.86 (0.69–1.00)	0.75 (0.44–1.00)
34	0.80 (0.71–0.89)	0.69 (0.42–0.96)	0.55 (0.23–0.87)	0.38 (0.09–0.68)
35	0.73 (0.62–0.84)	0.81 (0.64–0.98)	0.46 (0.15–0.77)	0.40 (0.09–0.70)

No weighted kappa values could be calculated for items 1 to 9.

Test-Retest and Interrater Reliability of the Item Scores of the Ghent Developmental Balance Test With Weighted Kappa Values (95% Confidence Interval)

Item^a

Test-Retest Reliability (n=144)	Interrater Reliability (n=22)
Test-Retest Reliability (n=144)	Raters 1 and 2	Raters 2 and 3	Raters 1 and 3
10	0.90 (0.78–1.00)
11	0.77 (0.52–1.00)
12	0.88 (0.78–0.98)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	0.65 (0.01–1.00)	0.65 (0.01–1.00)
13	0.95 (0.90–1.00)
14	0.86 (0.77–0.96)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
15	0.94 (0.88–1.00)	0.88 (0.65–1.00)	0.86 (0.60–1.00)	0.74 (0.42–1.00)
16	0.94 (0.84–0.99)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
17	0.92 (0.87–0.98)	0.83 (0.53–1.00)	0.81 (0.55–1.00)	0.83 (0.63–1.00)
18	0.91 (0.84–0.98)	0.64 (0.01–1.00)	0.65 (0.01–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
19	0.86 (0.79–0.93)	0.81 (0.56–1.00)	0.74 (0.52–0.96)	0.71 (0.43–0.98)
20	0.87 (0.80–0.95)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	0.77 (0.40–1.00)	0.77 (0.40–1.00)
21	0.91 (0.86–0.96)	0.89 (0.75–1.00)	0.84 (0.67–1.00)	0.84 (0.68–1.00)
22	0.85 (0.78–0.92)	0.78 (0.60–0.96)	0.90 (0.76–1.00)	0.68 (0.47–0.90)
23	0.91 (0.86–0.96)	0.78 (0.54–1.00)	0.78 (0.59–0.97)	0.66 (0.40–0.93)
24	0.92 (0.86–0.98)	0.89 (0.67–1.00)	0.94 (0.85–1.00)	0.83 (0.61–1.00)
25	0.91 (0.86–0.96)	0.66 (0.34–0.98)	0.67 (0.36–0.99)	0.67 (0.36–0.98)
26	0.95 (0.91–0.99)	0.86 (0.66–1.00)	0.95 (0.86–1.00)	0.77 (0.52–1.00)
27	0.89 (0.83–0.96)	0.91 (0.79–1.00)	0.91 (0.70–1.00)	0.91 (0.78–1.00)
28	0.84 (0.77–0.91)	0.83 (0.68–0.98)	0.95 (0.86–1.00)	0.77 (0.55–0.98)
29	0.85 (0.78–0.92)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
30	0.91 (0.85–0.96)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	0.77 (0.52–1.00)	0.77 (0.52–1.00)
31	0.90 (0.85–0.96)	0.95 (0.86–1.00)	0.76 (0.52–0.99)	0.81 (0.59–1.00)
32	0.88 (0.81–0.95)	0.76 (0.50–1.00)	0.68 (0.47–0.90)	0.66 (0.37–0.94)
33	0.81 (0.71–0.90)	0.75 (0.53–0.97)	0.86 (0.69–1.00)	0.75 (0.44–1.00)
34	0.80 (0.71–0.89)	0.69 (0.42–0.96)	0.55 (0.23–0.87)	0.38 (0.09–0.68)
35	0.73 (0.62–0.84)	0.81 (0.64–0.98)	0.46 (0.15–0.77)	0.40 (0.09–0.70)

Item^a

Test-Retest Reliability (n=144)	Interrater Reliability (n=22)
Test-Retest Reliability (n=144)	Raters 1 and 2	Raters 2 and 3	Raters 1 and 3
10	0.90 (0.78–1.00)
11	0.77 (0.52–1.00)
12	0.88 (0.78–0.98)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	0.65 (0.01–1.00)	0.65 (0.01–1.00)
13	0.95 (0.90–1.00)
14	0.86 (0.77–0.96)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
15	0.94 (0.88–1.00)	0.88 (0.65–1.00)	0.86 (0.60–1.00)	0.74 (0.42–1.00)
16	0.94 (0.84–0.99)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
17	0.92 (0.87–0.98)	0.83 (0.53–1.00)	0.81 (0.55–1.00)	0.83 (0.63–1.00)
18	0.91 (0.84–0.98)	0.64 (0.01–1.00)	0.65 (0.01–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
19	0.86 (0.79–0.93)	0.81 (0.56–1.00)	0.74 (0.52–0.96)	0.71 (0.43–0.98)
20	0.87 (0.80–0.95)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	0.77 (0.40–1.00)	0.77 (0.40–1.00)
21	0.91 (0.86–0.96)	0.89 (0.75–1.00)	0.84 (0.67–1.00)	0.84 (0.68–1.00)
22	0.85 (0.78–0.92)	0.78 (0.60–0.96)	0.90 (0.76–1.00)	0.68 (0.47–0.90)
23	0.91 (0.86–0.96)	0.78 (0.54–1.00)	0.78 (0.59–0.97)	0.66 (0.40–0.93)
24	0.92 (0.86–0.98)	0.89 (0.67–1.00)	0.94 (0.85–1.00)	0.83 (0.61–1.00)
25	0.91 (0.86–0.96)	0.66 (0.34–0.98)	0.67 (0.36–0.99)	0.67 (0.36–0.98)
26	0.95 (0.91–0.99)	0.86 (0.66–1.00)	0.95 (0.86–1.00)	0.77 (0.52–1.00)
27	0.89 (0.83–0.96)	0.91 (0.79–1.00)	0.91 (0.70–1.00)	0.91 (0.78–1.00)
28	0.84 (0.77–0.91)	0.83 (0.68–0.98)	0.95 (0.86–1.00)	0.77 (0.55–0.98)
29	0.85 (0.78–0.92)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)
30	0.91 (0.85–0.96)	1.00 (1.00–1.00)	0.77 (0.52–1.00)	0.77 (0.52–1.00)
31	0.90 (0.85–0.96)	0.95 (0.86–1.00)	0.76 (0.52–0.99)	0.81 (0.59–1.00)
32	0.88 (0.81–0.95)	0.76 (0.50–1.00)	0.68 (0.47–0.90)	0.66 (0.37–0.94)
33	0.81 (0.71–0.90)	0.75 (0.53–0.97)	0.86 (0.69–1.00)	0.75 (0.44–1.00)
34	0.80 (0.71–0.89)	0.69 (0.42–0.96)	0.55 (0.23–0.87)	0.38 (0.09–0.68)
35	0.73 (0.62–0.84)	0.81 (0.64–0.98)	0.46 (0.15–0.77)	0.40 (0.09–0.70)

No weighted kappa values could be calculated for items 1 to 9.

Interrater Reliability

The within-subjects effects for repeated measures of the total score showed a significant difference among the evaluations of the 3 raters (F_2,42=5.032, P=.014). Table 3 shows the interrater reliability of the total score, which was excellent, with an ICC of .98 and a SEM of 0.78, resulting in an MDD of 2.08. Table 2 presents the interrater reliability of the item scores, which showed good to very good agreement among the raters, with weighted kappa values higher than 0.64 for most items. Only items 34 and 35 showed moderate to good agreement (weighted kappa values between 0.38 and 0.81) among the raters. No weighted kappa values could be calculated for items 1 to 11 and item 13 because of a skewed distribution.

Interrater Reliability of the Ghent Developmental Balance Test Total Score^a

Internal Consistency

The Cronbach alpha for the total score on the GDBT was .97.

Known-Group Validity

A comparison between the clinical group and the 20 age- and sex-matched children with typical development showed no significant differences for age (t₃₈=0.142, P=.888) or for sex (χ² [1, N=40]=0.0, P=1.0), but showed a significant difference for the total score (t₃₈=5.401, P<.001, Cohen d=1.70) and for the z score on the GDBT (t₃₈=5.456, P<.001, Cohen d=1.70) (eTab. 2).

Convergent and Discriminant Validity

Table 4 presents the Pearson correlations between the z scores on the GDBT and the standardized scores of the different motor tests in children older than 3 years. In the total group, the GDBT showed a high correlation with the balance subscale of the BOT-2 (r=.80) and moderate correlations with the stationary subscale of the PDMS-2 (r=.60) and with the balance subscale (r=.69) and the total score of the M-ABC-2 (r=.66). In the clinical group, only the balance subscale of the BOT-2 showed a high correlation with the GDBT (r=.75). In the control group, the GDBT showed moderate correlations with the balance subscale of the BOT-2 (r=.61) and the M-ABC-2 (r=.50) and with the total score on the M-ABC-2 (r=.50) and a high correlation with the stationary subscale of the PDMS-2 (r=.72). The correlations of the GDBT with the manual dexterity and aiming and catching subscales of the M-ABC-2 and with the locomotion subscale of the PDMS-2 were in all groups low or little except for the clinical group, where the GDBT showed a moderate correlation with manual dexterity (r=.52).

Correlation Matrix (Pearson Correlation Coefficients) Between the z Scores on the Ghent Developmental Balance Test and the Standardized Scores on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children–Second Edition (M-ABC-2), the Peabody Developmental Motor Scale–Second Edition (PDMS-2), and the Balance Subscale of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test–Second Edition (BOT-2) in Children Older Than 3 Years

Group

M-ABC-2				PDMS-2		BOT-2
Manual Dexterity	Aiming and Catching	Balance	Total	Stationary	Locomotion	BOT-2
Total group (n=48)	0.48^a (0.23 to 0.67)	0.36^b (0.08 to 0.58)	0.69^a (0.51 to 0.81)	0.66^a (0.46 to 0.80)	0.60^a (0.38 to 0.76)	0.35^b (0.07 to 0.58)	0.80^a (0.67 to 0.88)
Clinical group (n=20)	0.52^b (0.10 to 0.78)	0.11 (−0.35 to 0.53)	0.13 (−0.33 to 0.54)	0.40 (−0.05 to 0.72)	0.39 (−0.06 to 0.71)	0.04 (−0.41 to 0.47)	0.75^a (0.46 to 0.90)
Control group (n=28)	0.17 (−0.22 to 0.55)	0.23 (−0.16 to 0.56)	0.50^a (0.16 to 0.74)	0.50^a (0.16 to 0.74)	0.72^a (0.48 to 0.86)	0.36 (−0.02 to 0.65)	0.61^a (0.31 to 0.80)

Group

M-ABC-2				PDMS-2		BOT-2
Manual Dexterity	Aiming and Catching	Balance	Total	Stationary	Locomotion	BOT-2
Total group (n=48)	0.48^a (0.23 to 0.67)	0.36^b (0.08 to 0.58)	0.69^a (0.51 to 0.81)	0.66^a (0.46 to 0.80)	0.60^a (0.38 to 0.76)	0.35^b (0.07 to 0.58)	0.80^a (0.67 to 0.88)
Clinical group (n=20)	0.52^b (0.10 to 0.78)	0.11 (−0.35 to 0.53)	0.13 (−0.33 to 0.54)	0.40 (−0.05 to 0.72)	0.39 (−0.06 to 0.71)	0.04 (−0.41 to 0.47)	0.75^a (0.46 to 0.90)
Control group (n=28)	0.17 (−0.22 to 0.55)	0.23 (−0.16 to 0.56)	0.50^a (0.16 to 0.74)	0.50^a (0.16 to 0.74)	0.72^a (0.48 to 0.86)	0.36 (−0.02 to 0.65)	0.61^a (0.31 to 0.80)

Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).

Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).

Group

M-ABC-2				PDMS-2		BOT-2
Manual Dexterity	Aiming and Catching	Balance	Total	Stationary	Locomotion	BOT-2
Total group (n=48)	0.48^a (0.23 to 0.67)	0.36^b (0.08 to 0.58)	0.69^a (0.51 to 0.81)	0.66^a (0.46 to 0.80)	0.60^a (0.38 to 0.76)	0.35^b (0.07 to 0.58)	0.80^a (0.67 to 0.88)
Clinical group (n=20)	0.52^b (0.10 to 0.78)	0.11 (−0.35 to 0.53)	0.13 (−0.33 to 0.54)	0.40 (−0.05 to 0.72)	0.39 (−0.06 to 0.71)	0.04 (−0.41 to 0.47)	0.75^a (0.46 to 0.90)
Control group (n=28)	0.17 (−0.22 to 0.55)	0.23 (−0.16 to 0.56)	0.50^a (0.16 to 0.74)	0.50^a (0.16 to 0.74)	0.72^a (0.48 to 0.86)	0.36 (−0.02 to 0.65)	0.61^a (0.31 to 0.80)

Group

M-ABC-2				PDMS-2		BOT-2
Manual Dexterity	Aiming and Catching	Balance	Total	Stationary	Locomotion	BOT-2
Total group (n=48)	0.48^a (0.23 to 0.67)	0.36^b (0.08 to 0.58)	0.69^a (0.51 to 0.81)	0.66^a (0.46 to 0.80)	0.60^a (0.38 to 0.76)	0.35^b (0.07 to 0.58)	0.80^a (0.67 to 0.88)
Clinical group (n=20)	0.52^b (0.10 to 0.78)	0.11 (−0.35 to 0.53)	0.13 (−0.33 to 0.54)	0.40 (−0.05 to 0.72)	0.39 (−0.06 to 0.71)	0.04 (−0.41 to 0.47)	0.75^a (0.46 to 0.90)
Control group (n=28)	0.17 (−0.22 to 0.55)	0.23 (−0.16 to 0.56)	0.50^a (0.16 to 0.74)	0.50^a (0.16 to 0.74)	0.72^a (0.48 to 0.86)	0.36 (−0.02 to 0.65)	0.61^a (0.31 to 0.80)

Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).

Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).

Table 5 presents the Pearson correlations between the z scores of the GDBT and the standardized subscale scores, as well as the gross, fine, and total motor quotients of the PDMS-2 in children younger than 3 years. All correlations were lower than ≤.42.

Correlation Matrix (Pearson Correlation Coefficients) Between the z Scores on the Ghent Developmental Balance Test and the Standardized Subscale Scores and the Fine, Gross, and Total Motor Quotients (GMQ, FMQ, and TMQ) of the Peabody Developmental Motor Scale–Second Edition (PDMS-2) in Children Younger Than 3 Years (n=46)

PDMS-2

Stationary	Locomotion	Object Manipulation	GMQ	Grasping	Visual-Motor Integration	FMQ	TMQ
0.28 (–0.01 to 0.53)	0.07 (–0.22 to 0.35)	0.39^a (0.11 to 0.61)	0.42^b (0.15 to 0.63)	0.06 (–0.23 to 0.34)	0.16 (–0.16 to 0.41)	0.17 (–0.16 to 0.44)	0.37^a (0.09 to 0.60)

PDMS-2

Stationary	Locomotion	Object Manipulation	GMQ	Grasping	Visual-Motor Integration	FMQ	TMQ
0.28 (–0.01 to 0.53)	0.07 (–0.22 to 0.35)	0.39^a (0.11 to 0.61)	0.42^b (0.15 to 0.63)	0.06 (–0.23 to 0.34)	0.16 (–0.16 to 0.41)	0.17 (–0.16 to 0.44)	0.37^a (0.09 to 0.60)

Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).

Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).

PDMS-2

Stationary	Locomotion	Object Manipulation	GMQ	Grasping	Visual-Motor Integration	FMQ	TMQ
0.28 (–0.01 to 0.53)	0.07 (–0.22 to 0.35)	0.39^a (0.11 to 0.61)	0.42^b (0.15 to 0.63)	0.06 (–0.23 to 0.34)	0.16 (–0.16 to 0.41)	0.17 (–0.16 to 0.44)	0.37^a (0.09 to 0.60)

PDMS-2

Stationary	Locomotion	Object Manipulation	GMQ	Grasping	Visual-Motor Integration	FMQ	TMQ
0.28 (–0.01 to 0.53)	0.07 (–0.22 to 0.35)	0.39^a (0.11 to 0.61)	0.42^b (0.15 to 0.63)	0.06 (–0.23 to 0.34)	0.16 (–0.16 to 0.41)	0.17 (–0.16 to 0.44)	0.37^a (0.09 to 0.60)

Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).

Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).

Construct Validity

The GDBT total score showed a very good correlation with the age of the children (r=.92). The 2-way analysis of variance showed a clear age effect, with increasing mean GDBT total scores across the age groups (F_4,350=557.056, P<.01) (Tab. 6). There was no significant main effect of sex (F_1,350=3.607, P=.58) and no significant interaction effect of age and sex (F_4,350=0.300, P=.878).

Mean (SD) Scores on the Ghent Developmental Balance Test by Age Group and Sex Based on the Norm Standardization Sample

All Participants

Boys		Girls
18–23 mo	19.9 (4.7)	n=56	19.8 (4.6)	n=31	20.0 (4.7)	n=25
24–35 mo	31.4 (8.5)	n=43	30.8 (7.4)	n=24	32.2 (9.9)	n=19
36–47 mo	47.7 (7.8)	n=77	46.3 (8.4)	n=37	49.1 (6.9)	n=40
48–59 mo	60.7 (7.5)	n=105	60.1 (7.2)	n=59	61.4 (7.8)	n=46
60–71 mo	66.7 (3.7)	n=79	66.0 (3.8)	n=37	67.4 (3.5)	n=42

All Participants

Boys		Girls
18–23 mo	19.9 (4.7)	n=56	19.8 (4.6)	n=31	20.0 (4.7)	n=25
24–35 mo	31.4 (8.5)	n=43	30.8 (7.4)	n=24	32.2 (9.9)	n=19
36–47 mo	47.7 (7.8)	n=77	46.3 (8.4)	n=37	49.1 (6.9)	n=40
48–59 mo	60.7 (7.5)	n=105	60.1 (7.2)	n=59	61.4 (7.8)	n=46
60–71 mo	66.7 (3.7)	n=79	66.0 (3.8)	n=37	67.4 (3.5)	n=42

Mean (SD) Scores on the Ghent Developmental Balance Test by Age Group and Sex Based on the Norm Standardization Sample

All Participants

Boys		Girls
18–23 mo	19.9 (4.7)	n=56	19.8 (4.6)	n=31	20.0 (4.7)	n=25
24–35 mo	31.4 (8.5)	n=43	30.8 (7.4)	n=24	32.2 (9.9)	n=19
36–47 mo	47.7 (7.8)	n=77	46.3 (8.4)	n=37	49.1 (6.9)	n=40
48–59 mo	60.7 (7.5)	n=105	60.1 (7.2)	n=59	61.4 (7.8)	n=46
60–71 mo	66.7 (3.7)	n=79	66.0 (3.8)	n=37	67.4 (3.5)	n=42

All Participants

Boys		Girls
18–23 mo	19.9 (4.7)	n=56	19.8 (4.6)	n=31	20.0 (4.7)	n=25
24–35 mo	31.4 (8.5)	n=43	30.8 (7.4)	n=24	32.2 (9.9)	n=19
36–47 mo	47.7 (7.8)	n=77	46.3 (8.4)	n=37	49.1 (6.9)	n=40
48–59 mo	60.7 (7.5)	n=105	60.1 (7.2)	n=59	61.4 (7.8)	n=46
60–71 mo	66.7 (3.7)	n=79	66.0 (3.8)	n=37	67.4 (3.5)	n=42

Discussion

The present study aimed to establish the psychometric properties of the GDBT for children from the moment of independent walking until the age of 5 years. The GDBT showed excellent test-retest and interrater reliability for the total score, reflecting the balance performance of the child. Notwithstanding the excellent test-retest reliability, the clinician who wants to monitor an individual child has to take into account the significant difference in performance throughout subsequent testing. This systematic error, probably attributable to a practice effect, should be considered carefully by the clinician, and frequent testing over short time periods should be avoided.

The MDD represents the minimal change in the individual GDBT total score (ranging from 0 to 70) that reflects real change rather than measurement error. The minimal change in the GDBT total score between 2 test occasions conducted by the same examiner needs to be at least 0.58 above or below the total score before it can be concluded that an individual has really improved or worsened. The GDBT total score showed a very small MDD, with a value even smaller than 1 point. However, the MDDs differed somewhat among the different age groups. The largest MDD (ie, 1.77) was found in the youngest age group, although this value is still good.

Regarding interrater reliability, we established a significant difference among the 3 raters. In addition, the MDD for interrater reliability of the GDBT total score was higher than those for test-retest reliability but was still acceptable. If the child is retested by another examiner, the clinician needs to be aware that a minimal change of at least 2.08 is needed to reflect a real change.

The GDBT had high internal consistency, which means that all items measure the same underlying balance construct although each item measures a different developmental level.

The known-group validity could be proved by the fact that the GDBT total score was significantly different between the clinical and control groups in this study. This result suggests that the test is able to differentiate between children with a higher risk for balance difficulties and children with typical development.

In children aged 3 years and older, the GDBT total score showed a strong correlation with the balance subscale of the BOT-2 and moderate correlations with the balance subscale of the M-ABC-2 and the PDMS-2, confirming that the GDBT evaluates balance. However, in the clinical group, the correlations with the balance subscale of the M-ABC-2 and the PDMS-2 were low. A possible explanation for the somewhat lower correlations of the GDBT with the balance subscale of the M-ABC-2 could be the “jumping on mats” item of the M-ABC-2, which requires jumping force, coordination, and timing. The lower correlation with the stationary subscale of the PDMS-2 could perhaps be explained by the fact that this subscale evaluates only static balance and encompasses curl-ups and push-ups. Furthermore, in children younger than 3 years, the association between the GDBT scores and scores on the stationary subscale of the PDMS-2 was very weak. The reason for this finding could be the developmental gap of the stationary subscale in the age range of 13 and 31 months, one of the reasons for which the GDBT was developed. The developmental gap can be confirmed by the fact that 88.7% of the children younger than 3 years in the validity part of the study had a raw score ranging between 37 and 39 on the stationary subscale of the PDMS-2, whereas the raw scores on the GDBT were equally spread between 8 and 29.

The GDBT showed low correlations with the manual dexterity and aiming and catching subscales of the M-ABC-2 and the subscales of the PDMS-2 measuring constructs other than balance. Those results confirm the discriminant validity of the GDBT. The strong correlation of the GDBT with the age of the children and the significant effect of age on the GDBT suggest a good developmental sequence of the test and confirm the construct validity.

The GDBT is a test specific for children in the toddler and preschool age range. Notwithstanding concerns such as difficulty understanding instructions and the limited attention span of these young children, the GDBT showed excellent reliability. Thus, this young population is able to be tested reliably with the GDBT, probably because the test construction allows the therapist to adapt the test order to encourage the child and because the number of trials needed to perform the task is not restricted.

To evaluate the test-retest reliability, the children were tested twice in the same week. This short period was chosen because young children develop very fast, but it probably explains the systematic error between the 2 test occasions.

The results of the interrater reliability analysis showed a significant difference among the ratings of the 3 assessors. This difference could not be explained by the experience of the raters in scoring the GDBT. All raters had no practical experience in scoring the test prior to the study, and they all learned to score the test by reading the manual thoroughly. However, the aim was to evaluate a real-life use of the test whereby clinicians learn to score the test by the manual. The results showed that rater 3 scored consistently lower than raters 1 and 2. This finding could have been influenced by the fact that scoring was based on videotaped assessments. Observing and scoring a performance test from a videotape is different from observing a child in real life. When therapists examine a child in a clinical setting, they are free to take the best possible viewpoint. This advantage is not possible when a videotape is used, and this constraint certainly accounted for some of the errors found in this study. Items 34 and 35, in particular, showed the lowest agreement between rater 3 and the other 2 raters. Those items evaluate the amount of time the child can stand with eyes closed on a line with the heel touching the toes. The difficulty in scoring those items based on videotapes was the inability to observe whether the children closed their eyes permanently and did not move their feet during the trial. Probably, if the observation was in real life, those items could show better agreement. Therefore, in future studies, we suggest evaluating the interrater reliability between 2 raters in a real-life context.

The first items of the GDBT are especially relevant for children with balance disabilities. Those children learn to walk later than average, and in the beginning they have more difficulties in walking across unstable surfaces or over obstacles. Although the test can be used for children from the moment of independent walking until the age of 5 years, we started inclusion in the norm standardization sample from the age of 18 months because the moment of independent walking varies a lot in children who are developing typically. As a consequence, most of the children in the reliability part of the study reached a maximum score on the first items, and reliability of those items could not be calculated because of a skewed distribution. In future studies, the reliability of the GDBT should be investigated in groups of children with motor and balance disabilities to determine in greater depth the reliability of the first items and how different motor patterns influence scoring and reliability.

Based on the current norm standardization sample of 360 children with typical development, preliminary percentile scores can be calculated for clinical interpretation of the total score on the GDBT. However, before the test can be used for wider practice, the norm standardization sample must be enlarged and expanded to other countries. Because therapists can use this assessment tool to note a child's progress, continued research is needed to examine the responsiveness, sensitivity, and specificity of the GDBT.

Conclusions

The GDBT is a reliable and valid clinical measurement tool for the evaluation of balance in young children from the moment of independent walking until the age of 5 years. It is inexpensive, quick to administer, and easily scored. The GDBT appears to be a promising outcome measurement tool to screen for balance difficulties and to plan intervention programs aimed at improving balance.

What do we already know about this topic?

A review of the available tests for children within the age range of 18 months to 5 years revealed the lack of a tool to systematically monitor balance and necessitated the development of a new assessment tool. The Ghent Developmental Balance Test (GDBT) offers a complete series of tasks reflecting the development of a child's balance abilities in the toddler and preschool age range.

What new information does this study offer?

This study examined the reliability and validity of the GDBT. The test-retest and interrater reliability of the GDBT was excellent. Pearson correlations between the GDBT and balance subscales of other motor assessment tools confirm that the GDBT evaluates “balance.”

If you're a caregiver, what might these findings mean for you?

The GDBT is a reliable and valid clinical assessment tool for the evaluation of balance in toddlers and preschool children. This test will help physical therapists accurately assess your child's balance.

The authors thank all of the parents and children who participated in this study, Linda Hermans and Barbara De Mey for rating the GDBT videotaped assessments, and Veerle Compère, Tanja Van Cauwenberghe, Marlies De Wulf, and Lieselot Lievens for their assistance in collecting data.

The study was approved by the Ethical Committee of Ghent University Hospital.

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Appendix

Stepping across a thin mat
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Bipedal standing
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Bipedal standing on a balance pad
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping across a soft balance beam
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Stepping across a balance pad
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Stepping across a soft balance beam that rests on a thin mat
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Kneeling and turning the head
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to take the position.
Kicking a ball 1
Scoring is based on the quality of the movement.
Semi-tandem stance
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Semi-tandem stance with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping with one foot on the line
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps on the line.
Standing on a line 1
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping on tiptoes
Scoring is based on the ability to step on tiptoes and the number of steps on tiptoes.
Stepping on a line 1
Scoring is based on the number of steps on the line.
Kicking a ball 2
Scoring is based on the quality of the movement.
Stepping on tiptoes on a line
Scoring is based on the ability to step on tiptoes on a line and the number of steps on tiptoes on a line.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 1
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping on a line 2
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps on the line.
Standing on a line 2
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping on a line 3
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps on the line and on the quality of movement.
Run and stop
Scoring is based on the number of steps before standing still.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 2
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping backward on a line 1
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps backward on the line.
Jumping forward on one leg across a line
Scoring is based on the distance and the ability to jump forward on one leg across a line.
Stepping backward on a line 2
Scoring is based on the number of steps on the line.
Hopping
Scoring is based on the ability to hop and the number of hops.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 3
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on tiptoes with arms up
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (preferred foot in front)
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (nonpreferred foot in front)
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 4
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on one leg (nonpreferred foot) 5
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (preferred foot in front) and with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (nonpreferred foot in front) and with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.

Stepping across a thin mat
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Bipedal standing
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Bipedal standing on a balance pad
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping across a soft balance beam
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Stepping across a balance pad
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Stepping across a soft balance beam that rests on a thin mat
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Kneeling and turning the head
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to take the position.
Kicking a ball 1
Scoring is based on the quality of the movement.
Semi-tandem stance
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Semi-tandem stance with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping with one foot on the line
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps on the line.
Standing on a line 1
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping on tiptoes
Scoring is based on the ability to step on tiptoes and the number of steps on tiptoes.
Stepping on a line 1
Scoring is based on the number of steps on the line.
Kicking a ball 2
Scoring is based on the quality of the movement.
Stepping on tiptoes on a line
Scoring is based on the ability to step on tiptoes on a line and the number of steps on tiptoes on a line.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 1
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping on a line 2
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps on the line.
Standing on a line 2
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping on a line 3
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps on the line and on the quality of movement.
Run and stop
Scoring is based on the number of steps before standing still.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 2
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping backward on a line 1
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps backward on the line.
Jumping forward on one leg across a line
Scoring is based on the distance and the ability to jump forward on one leg across a line.
Stepping backward on a line 2
Scoring is based on the number of steps on the line.
Hopping
Scoring is based on the ability to hop and the number of hops.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 3
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on tiptoes with arms up
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (preferred foot in front)
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (nonpreferred foot in front)
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 4
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on one leg (nonpreferred foot) 5
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (preferred foot in front) and with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (nonpreferred foot in front) and with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.

Stepping across a thin mat
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Bipedal standing
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Bipedal standing on a balance pad
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping across a soft balance beam
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Stepping across a balance pad
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Stepping across a soft balance beam that rests on a thin mat
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Kneeling and turning the head
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to take the position.
Kicking a ball 1
Scoring is based on the quality of the movement.
Semi-tandem stance
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Semi-tandem stance with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping with one foot on the line
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps on the line.
Standing on a line 1
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping on tiptoes
Scoring is based on the ability to step on tiptoes and the number of steps on tiptoes.
Stepping on a line 1
Scoring is based on the number of steps on the line.
Kicking a ball 2
Scoring is based on the quality of the movement.
Stepping on tiptoes on a line
Scoring is based on the ability to step on tiptoes on a line and the number of steps on tiptoes on a line.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 1
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping on a line 2
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps on the line.
Standing on a line 2
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping on a line 3
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps on the line and on the quality of movement.
Run and stop
Scoring is based on the number of steps before standing still.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 2
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping backward on a line 1
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps backward on the line.
Jumping forward on one leg across a line
Scoring is based on the distance and the ability to jump forward on one leg across a line.
Stepping backward on a line 2
Scoring is based on the number of steps on the line.
Hopping
Scoring is based on the ability to hop and the number of hops.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 3
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on tiptoes with arms up
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (preferred foot in front)
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (nonpreferred foot in front)
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 4
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on one leg (nonpreferred foot) 5
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (preferred foot in front) and with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (nonpreferred foot in front) and with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.

Stepping across a thin mat
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Bipedal standing
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Bipedal standing on a balance pad
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping across a soft balance beam
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Stepping across a balance pad
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Stepping across a soft balance beam that rests on a thin mat
Scoring is based on the ability to maintain balance and the quality of movement.
Kneeling and turning the head
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to take the position.
Kicking a ball 1
Scoring is based on the quality of the movement.
Semi-tandem stance
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Semi-tandem stance with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping with one foot on the line
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps on the line.
Standing on a line 1
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping on tiptoes
Scoring is based on the ability to step on tiptoes and the number of steps on tiptoes.
Stepping on a line 1
Scoring is based on the number of steps on the line.
Kicking a ball 2
Scoring is based on the quality of the movement.
Stepping on tiptoes on a line
Scoring is based on the ability to step on tiptoes on a line and the number of steps on tiptoes on a line.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 1
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping on a line 2
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps on the line.
Standing on a line 2
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping on a line 3
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps on the line and on the quality of movement.
Run and stop
Scoring is based on the number of steps before standing still.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 2
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Stepping backward on a line 1
Scoring is based on the distance the child steps backward on the line.
Jumping forward on one leg across a line
Scoring is based on the distance and the ability to jump forward on one leg across a line.
Stepping backward on a line 2
Scoring is based on the number of steps on the line.
Hopping
Scoring is based on the ability to hop and the number of hops.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 3
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on tiptoes with arms up
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (preferred foot in front)
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (nonpreferred foot in front)
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on one leg (preferred foot) 4
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on one leg (nonpreferred foot) 5
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (preferred foot in front) and with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.
Standing on a line with the heel touching the toes (nonpreferred foot in front) and with eyes closed
Scoring is based on the time and the ability to stand in the position.

All authors provided concept/idea/research design. Ms De Kegel, Ms Baetens, Dr Maes, Dr Dhooge, and Dr Van Waelvelde provided writing. Ms De Kegel, Mr Peersman, and Dr Van Waelvelde provided data collection and analysis. Ms De Kegel provided project management, fund procurement, participants, institutional liaisons, and clerical support. Ms De Kegel, Dr Dhooge, and Dr Van Waelvelde provided facilities/equipment. Ms De Kegel, Mr Peersman, Dr Dhooge, and Dr Van Waelvelde provided consultation (including review of manuscript before submission).

Supplementary data

Age and Sex Distribution of the Participants of the Different Parts of the Study

- pdf file

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